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Enrico Fermi Italian: [enˈriːko ˈfermi] ; 29 September — 28 November was an Italian later naturalized American physicist and the creator of the world's first nuclear reactorthe Chicago Pile He has been called the "architect of the nuclear age " [1] and the "architect of the atomic bomb".
Fermi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on induced radioactivity by neutron bombardment and for the discovery of transuranium elements. With his colleagues, Fermi filed several patents related to the use of nuclear power, all of which were taken over by the US government.
He made significant contributions to the development of statistical mechanicsquantum theoryand nuclear and particle physics. Fermi's first major contribution involved the field of statistical mechanics. After Wolfgang Pauli formulated his exclusion principle inFermi followed with a paper in which he applied the principle to an ideal gasemploying a statistical formulation now known as Fermi—Dirac statistics.
Today, particles that obey the exclusion principle are called " fermions ". Pauli later postulated the existence of an uncharged invisible particle emitted along with an electron during beta decayto best problem solving editor services for university the law of conservation of energy.
Fermi took up this idea, developing a model that incorporated the postulated particle, which he named the " neutrino ". His theory, later referred to as Fermi's interaction and now called weak interactiondescribed one of the four fundamental interactions in nature. Through experiments inducing radioactivity with the recently discovered neutronFermi discovered that slow neutrons were more easily captured by atomic nuclei than fast ones, and he developed the Fermi age equation to describe this.
After bombarding thorium and uranium with slow neutrons, best problem solving editor services for university, he best problem solving editor services for university that he had created new elements. Although he was awarded the Nobel Prize for this discovery, the new elements were later revealed to be nuclear fission products. Fermi left Italy in to escape new Italian racial laws that affected his Jewish wife, Laura Capon.
He emigrated to the United States, where he worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II. Fermi led the team that designed and built Chicago Pile-1, which went critical on 2 Decemberdemonstrating the first human-created, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.
He was on hand when the X Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge, Tennesseewent critical inand when the B Reactor at the Hanford Site did so the next year. At Los Alamoshe headed F Division, part of which worked on Edward Teller 's thermonuclear " Super " bomb. He was present at the Trinity test on 16 Julywhere he used his Fermi method to estimate the bomb's yield. After the war, Fermi served under J. Robert Oppenheimer on the General Advisory Committee, which advised the Atomic Energy Commission on nuclear matters.
After best problem solving editor services for university detonation of the first Soviet fission bomb in Augusthe strongly opposed the development of a hydrogen bomb on both moral and technical grounds. He was among the scientists who testified on Oppenheimer's behalf at the hearing that resulted in the denial of Oppenheimer's security clearance. Fermi did important work in particle physics, especially related to pions and muonsand he speculated that cosmic rays arose when material was accelerated by magnetic fields in interstellar space.
Many awards, best problem solving editor services for university, concepts, and institutions are named after Fermiincluding the Enrico Fermi Awardthe Enrico Fermi Institutethe Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory Fermilab best problem solving editor services for university, the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescopeand the synthetic element fermiummaking him one of 16 scientists who have elements named after them.
Fermi tutored or directly influenced no fewer than 8 young researchers who went on to win Nobel Prizes. Enrico Fermi was born in Rome, Italy, on 29 September He was the third child of Alberto Fermi, a division head in the Ministry of Railways, and Ida de Gattis, an elementary school teacher. After the two boys were sent to a rural community to be wet nursedEnrico rejoined his family in Rome when he was two and a half. As a young boy, he shared the same interests as his brother Giulio, building electric motors and playing with electrical and mechanical toys.
At a local market Fermi found a physics book, the page Elementorum physicae mathematicae. Written in Latin by Jesuit Father Andrea Caraffa [ it ]a professor at the Collegio Romanoit presented mathematicsclassical mechanicsastronomyopticsand acoustics as they were understood at the time of its publication.
Fermi graduated from high school in Julyand at Amidei's urging applied to the Scuola Normale Superiore in Pisa. Having lost one son, his parents only reluctantly allowed him to live in the school's lodgings for four years. At the Scuola Normale Superiore Fermi played pranks with fellow student Franco Rasetti ; the two became close friends and collaborators.
Fermi was advised by Luigi Pucciantidirector of the physics laboratory, who said there was little he could teach Fermi and often asked Fermi to teach him something instead. Fermi's knowledge of quantum physics was such that Puccianti asked him to organize seminars on the topic. He remained largely self-taught, studying general relativity, quantum mechanicsand atomic physics.
In SeptemberFermi was admitted to the Physics department. Since there were only three students in the department—Fermi, best problem solving editor services for university, Rasetti, and Nello Carrara —Puccianti let them freely use the laboratory for whatever purposes they chose. Fermi decided that they should research X-ray crystallographyand the three worked to produce a Laue photograph—an X-ray photograph of a crystal.
The first was entitled "On the dynamics of a rigid system of electrical charges in translational motion" Sulla dinamica di un sistema rigido di cariche elettriche in moto traslatorio. A sign of things to come was that the mass was expressed as a tensor —a mathematical construct commonly used to describe something moving and changing in three-dimensional space.
In classical mechanics, mass is a scalar quantity, but in relativity, it changes with velocity. The second paper was "On the electrostatics of a uniform gravitational field of electromagnetic charges and on the weight of electromagnetic charges" Sull'elettrostatica di un campo gravitazionale uniforme e sul peso delle masse elettromagnetiche.
Fermi addressed this the best problem solving editor services for university year in a paper "Concerning a contradiction between electrodynamic and the relativistic theory of electromagnetic mass" in which he showed that the apparent contradiction was a consequence of relativity.
This paper was sufficiently well-regarded that it was translated into German and published in the German scientific journal Physikalische Zeitschrift in In this article he examined the Principle of Equivalenceand introduced the so-called " Fermi coordinates ".
He proved that on a world line close to the timeline, space behaves as if it were a Euclidean space. Fermi submitted his thesis, "A theorem on probability and some of its applications" Un teorema di calcolo delle probabilità ed alcune sue applicazionito the Scuola Normale Superiore in Julyand received his laurea at the unusually young age of The thesis was on X-ray diffraction images.
Theoretical physics was not yet considered a discipline in Italy, and the only thesis that would have been accepted was experimental physics. For this reason, Italian physicists were slow in embracing the new ideas like relativity coming from Germany. Since Fermi was quite at home in the lab doing experimental work, this did not pose insurmountable problems for him.
InFermi best problem solving editor services for university initiated into the Masonic Lodge "Adriano Lemmi" best problem solving editor services for university the Grand Orient of Italy. In —, Fermi spent a semester studying under Max Born at the University of Göttingenbest problem solving editor services for university he met Werner Heisenberg and Pascual Jordan, best problem solving editor services for university.
Fermi then studied in Leiden with Paul Ehrenfest from September to December on a fellowship from the Rockefeller Foundation obtained through the intercession of the mathematician Vito Volterra. Here Fermi met Hendrik Lorentz and Albert Einsteinand became friends with Samuel Goudsmit and Jan Tinbergen. From January to lateFermi taught mathematical physics and theoretical mechanics at the University of Florencewhere he teamed up with Rasetti to conduct a series of experiments on the effects of magnetic fields best problem solving editor services for university mercury vapor.
He also participated in seminars at the Sapienza University of Rome, giving lectures on quantum mechanics and solid state physics. After Wolfgang Pauli announced his exclusion principle inFermi responded with a paper "On the quantization of the perfect monoatomic gas" Sulla quantizzazione del gas perfetto monoatomicoin which he applied the exclusion principle to an ideal gas. The paper was especially notable for Fermi's statistical formulation, which describes the distribution of particles in systems of many identical particles that obey the exclusion principle.
This was independently developed soon after by the British physicist Paul Diracwho also showed how it was related to the Bose—Einstein statistics. Accordingly, it is now known as Fermi—Dirac statistics.
Professorships in Italy were granted by competition concorso for a vacant chair, the applicants being rated on their publications by a committee of professors. Fermi applied for a chair of mathematical physics at the University of Cagliari on Sardiniabut was narrowly passed over in favor of Giovanni Giorgi. This was a new chair, one of the first three in theoretical physics in Italy, that had been created by the Minister of Education at the urging of Professor Orso Mario Corbinowho was the university's professor of experimental physics, the Director of the Institute of Physics, and a member of Benito Mussolini 's cabinet.
Corbino, who also chaired the selection committee, hoped that the new chair would raise the standard and reputation of physics in Italy. Fermi married Laura Capona science student at the university, on 19 July He later opposed Fascism when the racial laws were promulgated by Mussolini in order to bring Italian Fascism ideologically closer to German National Socialism.
These laws threatened Laura, who was Jewish, and put many of Fermi's research assistants out of work. During their time in Rome, Fermi and his group made important contributions to many practical and theoretical aspects of physics. Inhe published his Introduction to Atomic Physics Introduzione alla fisica atomicawhich provided Italian university students with an up-to-date and accessible text. Fermi also conducted public lectures and wrote popular articles for scientists and teachers in order to spread knowledge of the new physics as widely as possible.
The most notable of these was the German physicist Hans Bethe[45] who came to Rome as a Rockefeller Foundation fellow, and collaborated with Fermi on a paper "On the Interaction between Two Electrons" German : Über die Wechselwirkung von Zwei Elektronen.
At this time, physicists were puzzled by beta decayin which an electron was emitted from the atomic nucleus. To satisfy the law of conservation of energybest problem solving editor services for university, Pauli postulated the existence of an invisible particle with no charge and little or no mass that was also emitted at the same time.
Fermi took up this idea, which he developed in a tentative paper inbest problem solving editor services for university, and then a longer paper the next year that incorporated the postulated particle, which Fermi called a " neutrino ". The neutrino was detected after his death, and his interaction theory showed why it was so difficult to detect.
When he submitted his paper to the British journal Naturethat journal's editor turned it down because it contained speculations which were "too remote from physical reality to be of interest to readers".
Fermi's theory, aside from bolstering Pauli's proposal of the neutrino, best problem solving editor services for university, has a special significance in the history of modern physics. One must remember that only the naturally occurring β emitters were known at the time the theory was proposed.
Later when positron decay was discovered, the process was easily incorporated within Fermi's original framework. On the basis of his theory, the capture of an orbital electron by a nucleus was predicted and eventually observed.
With time, experimental data accumulated significantly. Although peculiarities have been observed many times in β decay, Fermi's theory always has been equal to the challenge. The consequences of the Fermi theory are vast, best problem solving editor services for university. For example, β spectroscopy was established as a powerful tool for the study of nuclear structure, best problem solving editor services for university.
But perhaps the most influential aspect of this work of Fermi is that his particular form of the β interaction established a pattern that has been appropriate for the study of other types of interactions.
It was the first successful theory of the creation and annihilation of material particles. Previously, only photons had been known to be created and destroyed. In JanuaryIrène Joliot-Curie and Frédéric Joliot announced that they had bombarded elements with alpha particles and induced radioactivity in them. Fermi decided to switch to experimental physics, using the neutronwhich James Chadwick had discovered in Neutrons had no electric charge, and so would not be deflected by the positively charged nucleus.
This meant that they needed much less energy to penetrate the nucleus than charged particles, and so would not require a particle acceleratorwhich the Via Panisperna boys did not have. Fermi had the idea to resort to replacing the polonium-beryllium neutron source with a radon -beryllium one, which he created by filling a glass bulb with beryllium powder, evacuating the air, and then adding 50 m Ci of radon gas, supplied by Giulio Cesare Trabacchi.
He knew that this source would also emit gamma raysbut, on the basis of his theory, he believed that this would not affect the results of the experiment. He started by bombarding platinumbest problem solving editor services for university, an element with a high atomic number that was readily available, without success.
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